Colonialism reshaped the world, leaving behind deep and complex legacies in every region it touched. From Africa to Asia, the Middle East to the Americas, the political, economic, and cultural landscapes of formerly colonised nations were profoundly altered. This series of articles, Echoes of Empire, delves into the lasting effects of colonial rule exploring how the exploitation of resources, forced cultural assimilation, and the imposition of foreign governance systems continue to shape modern societies. By understanding the long-term consequences of colonialism, we gain insight into contemporary global challenges, from inequality and conflict to identity and independence. Each addition to the series will focus on a particular Country, the hope is the series will inform a new generation on the deeply troublesome lasting legacy of Colonial rule. This weeks article will focus on Lebanon, timely given the the current circumstance of the middle east.
Colonialism in Lebanon: From Foundation to Present Day
Lebanon's political and social landscape has been profoundly shaped by the interference of colonial and foreign powers. Since the foundation of the modern Lebanese state in the early 20th century, these external forces have often prioritised their geopolitical interests over the well-being of the Lebanese people. Whether through direct colonial control, manipulation of internal divisions, or military interventions, foreign powers have left a legacy of instability, division, and exploitation in Lebanon. This article examines how the actions of colonial and foreign powers have negatively impacted the people of Lebanon from the country’s foundation to today.
French Colonial Rule and the Creation of Greater Lebanon (1920–1943)
The modern Lebanese state was created under French colonial rule following World War I, when the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and its territories were divided between European powers. In 1920, France was granted a mandate over Lebanon and Syria by the League of Nations. The French created Greater Lebanon, which expanded the borders of the traditional Maronite Christian dominated Mount Lebanon to include Muslim majority areas such as the Bekaa Valley, Tripoli, and the southern coastal regions. While this territorial expansion laid the foundation for modern Lebanon, it also sowed the seeds of long-term sectarian conflict.
France's motives in creating Greater Lebanon were rooted in its desire to maintain influence in the region, to protect its Christian allies, particularly the Maronite community and more importantly to financially capitalise on the regions rich economic potential. However, this division into a confessional state imposed an artificial political structure that did not reflect Lebanon’s complex religious and ethnic diversity. By privileging the Maronite Christians politically and economically, France institutionalised a sectarian system that left Muslims particularly Shia Muslims disempowered and marginalised.
Moreover, French colonial policies suppressed the political aspirations of various Lebanese communities. French authorities often imposed authoritarian control, restricting political freedoms and manipulating local leaders to ensure the dominance of pro-French factions. The Lebanese people, especially those outside the Christian elite, had little control over their political future, as key decisions were made in Paris rather than in Beirut. This fostered resentment and mistrust among different religious communities, laying the groundwork for future internal conflicts.
Post-Independence and Cold War Politics (1943–1975)
Although Lebanon gained independence in 1943, the legacy of colonialism continued to shape its political system and exacerbate divisions. The National Pact of 1943, an agreement between Christian and Muslim leaders that sought to balance political power, was essentially a continuation of the sectarian structure established under French rule. The pact distributed political offices along religious lines, with the presidency reserved for a Maronite Christian, the prime ministership for a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of parliament for a Shia Muslim. While this arrangement provided a fragile stability, it also entrenched a system that prioritized sectarian identity over national unity.
During the Cold War, Lebanon became a battleground for regional and global powers. The United States, the Soviet Union, and regional players such as Egypt, Syria, and Israel sought to influence Lebanon’s politics to advance their own agendas. The influx of Palestinian refugees after the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the rise of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in the 1960s further destabilised the country, with different Lebanese factions aligning themselves with foreign powers based on their sectarian or ideological affiliations.
The manipulation of Lebanon’s internal divisions by foreign powers during this period deepened the sectarian divide. The Christian political elite, traditionally aligned with Western powers such as France and the United States, feared the growing influence of Arab nationalism and the rise of leftist and pro-Palestinian movements, which were supported by the Soviet Union and Arab states. These external influences polarised Lebanese society, leading to tensions that would eventually erupt into civil war.
The Lebanese Civil War and Foreign Interventions (1975–1990)
The Lebanese Civil War, which raged from 1975 to 1990, was a devastating conflict that resulted in the deaths of over 100,000 people and the displacement of hundreds of thousands more. The war was fueled by both internal sectarian tensions and the involvement of foreign powers, who exploited Lebanon’s divisions for their own strategic interests.
Syria, Israel, the United States, and regional actors such as Iran and Saudi Arabia all played significant roles in the civil war. Syria, under the guise of stabilizing the country, intervened militarily in 1976 and maintained a heavy presence in Lebanon throughout the conflict. However, rather than restoring order, Syrian forces exacerbated the violence by backing different factions at different times, prolonging the war and deepening sectarian animosities.
Israel’s invasions of Lebanon in 1978 and 1982, ostensibly aimed at eradicating Palestinian militant groups, also had a devastating impact on the Lebanese population. The 1982 Israeli invasion led to the occupation of southern Lebanon and the siege of Beirut, causing widespread destruction and civilian casualties. The war saw massacres, such as the infamous Sabra and Shatila massacre, and created a humanitarian crisis as the country’s infrastructure was decimated.
Foreign interventions during the civil war not only prolonged the conflict but also left Lebanon deeply fragmented. Militias backed by foreign powers became more powerful than the Lebanese state, and political authority was effectively decentralized, with different regions controlled by various armed factions. The constant meddling by external actors meant that peace efforts were continually undermined, as these powers prioritized their geopolitical interests over the needs of the Lebanese people.
Post-War Era and Syrian Occupation (1990–2005)
The Lebanese Civil War officially ended in 1990 with the Taif Agreement, which restructured the political system but retained its sectarian basis. While the agreement brought an end to large-scale violence, it did little to address the root causes of the conflict or the damage done by foreign interference.
Syria’s occupation of Lebanon, which began during the civil war, continued well into the post-war era. Syrian forces remained in the country until 2005, exerting significant control over Lebanese politics. Syrian influence was pervasive, with key political decisions being made in Damascus rather than Beirut. The Lebanese political elite was often forced to align with Syrian interests, stifling political reform and perpetuating corruption and inefficiency.
This period also saw the rise of Hezbollah, a Shia militant and political group that was backed by Iran and Syria. While Hezbollah gained popular support for resisting Israeli occupation, its existence as an armed militia outside state control further undermined Lebanon’s sovereignty and contributed to political instability. The Lebanese people, especially the Shia community, were caught between competing foreign powers, each seeking to use Lebanon as a proxy for their own regional ambitions.
Economic Crisis and Continued Foreign Influence (2005–Present)
The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri in 2005, widely blamed on Syrian and Hezbollah operatives, led to mass protests and the eventual withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon. However, the end of the Syrian occupation did not bring political stability or independence from foreign influence. Lebanon remained deeply divided along sectarian lines, with political factions aligning themselves with external powers such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Western countries.
In recent years, Lebanon has faced a severe economic crisis, largely driven by decades of corruption and mismanagement by a political class that has often prioritized its ties to foreign backers over the needs of the Lebanese people. The 2020 Beirut port explosion, caused by the improper storage of ammonium nitrate, was a stark symbol of the state's failure to protect its citizens. The explosion killed over 200 people, injured thousands, and displaced many more, leaving the country in a state of economic and political collapse.
The ongoing influence of foreign powers, particularly through Hezbollah’s ties to Iran and Saudi Arabia’s support for Sunni factions, continues to prevent the formation of a truly independent and functional Lebanese state. The Lebanese people remain caught in a geopolitical struggle that has little regard for their well-being.
How Israeli Imperial Actions Have Hindered the Development of Lebanon
Israel’s actions in Lebanon, particularly through military interventions and occupations, have significantly hindered the country's development over the past several decades. These actions, which can be viewed as imperial in nature due to their aim of controlling Lebanon's political landscape and territorial integrity, have had devastating effects on Lebanon’s economy, infrastructure, and social fabric.
Israel has invaded Lebanon multiple times, most notably in 1978 and 1982. The 1982 invasion, which was aimed at expelling the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from Lebanon, escalated into a full-scale occupation of southern Lebanon that lasted until 2000. During this period, Israeli forces established a security zone, controlling the region militarily and economically, which destabilised the southern part of the country.
The occupation displaced thousands of civilians, disrupted local economies, and destroyed essential infrastructure such as roads, schools, and hospitals. The constant presence of Israeli military forces, combined with frequent airstrikes, created an environment of insecurity that stifled development and economic activity in southern Lebanon. Resources that could have been used for national growth were instead diverted to rebuilding efforts and military defense.
One of the unintended consequences of Israeli actions in Lebanon was the rise of Hezbollah as discussed earlier, a Shia militant group formed in the 1980s in response to Israeli occupation. While Hezbollah initially emerged as a resistance movement, it has since grown into a powerful political and military force in Lebanon.
Hezbollah's militarisation, which continues to this day, has contributed to internal divisions and political instability in Lebanon. Israel’s repeated confrontations with Hezbollah, including the 2006 Lebanon War, have devastated Lebanese infrastructure and disrupted efforts to build a stable economy. These conflicts have left southern Lebanon impoverished and damaged, with recovery efforts frequently undone by renewed fighting. Many have argued that Hezbollah have been instrumental in stopping Israel from maintaining a military presence in Southern Lebanon, a presence which surely would lead to the annexing of Lebanese land over time.
Israel’s imperial actions have also stifled Lebanon’s economic potential. The constant threat of conflict along the southern border has made it difficult for Lebanon to attract foreign investment or develop key sectors like tourism and agriculture. Lebanon’s political leaders have been forced to prioritize defence and reconstruction over sustainable development and social programs, leaving the country with high levels of poverty and underdevelopment, particularly in areas that have borne the brunt of Israeli military actions.
Moreover, the damage to Lebanon’s infrastructure during Israeli invasions and the 2006 war especially in southern Lebanon and Beirut has drained public resources, delayed reconstruction efforts, and forced the country to rely on international aid, which often comes with political strings attached.
Israeli imperial actions have deeply hindered Lebanon’s development, primarily by fostering a cycle of conflict, displacement, and destruction. From military occupations to repeated wars, Israel’s presence in Lebanon has had long-term consequences, preventing the country from achieving stability, economic growth, and national unity. As Lebanon struggles to rebuild, the legacy of Israeli interference remains a major obstacle to its progress.
Estimates suggest that many thousands of Lebanese people have been killed by Israeli military actions over the years, particularly during key conflicts. Notably, the 2006 Lebanon War alone resulted in the deaths of around 1,100 Lebanese, most of whom were civilians. Over decades of military engagements, including the 1982 invasion and subsequent occupation, thousands more have died, including civilians, militants, and security forces. These conflicts have also displaced large numbers of people and caused extensive infrastructure damage, further impacting Lebanon’s development. As I write today it is almost certain that the IDF will have murdered many thousands more as the current 2024 Israeli invasion continues.
Conclusion
Throughout its modern history, Lebanon has suffered from the negative impact of colonial and foreign powers. From the creation of an artificial sectarian system by the French, to the devastation of the civil war fueled by external interventions, and the post-war manipulation by regional and global actors, foreign interference has consistently undermined Lebanon’s sovereignty and stability. Today, the Lebanese people are still grappling with the consequences of this legacy, facing an economic collapse and political paralysis caused by decades of corruption, sectarianism, and foreign influence. The path to a stable and independent Lebanon requires breaking free from this cycle of external exploitation and empowering the Lebanese people to determine their own future.
Note the above article is only a brief overview of Lebanon's complex history, I encourage people to delve deeper into the history of this great country in order to understand the deeper complexities of its political environment.
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